Domestic violence, often called intimate partner violence (IPV), is a widespread human rights and public health issue affecting both women a...
Domestic violence, often called intimate
partner violence (IPV), is a widespread human rights and public health issue
affecting both women and men. It involves abuse—physical, sexual, emotional, or
economic—perpetrated by one partner against another in an intimate or household
relationship. Physical abuse is one form of domestic violence,
characterized by actions that cause bodily harm (hitting, slapping, choking,
etc.)[1]. According to the World Health
Organization, “intimate partner violence refers to behaviour within an
intimate relationship that causes physical, sexual or psychological harm”,
and includes acts of physical aggression and controlling behavior[2]. Similarly, the U.S. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention defines IPV as abuse in a romantic relationship,
encompassing physical violence, sexual violence, stalking, and psychological
aggression[3]. Both definitions emphasize that
domestic violence is about power and control; it spans actions from visible
injuries to coercive tactics, and it impacts people of all genders, ages,
races, and socioeconomic statuses[4][2].
Domestic violence is distinguished from
other violence by its context: it occurs at home or between intimates. The U.S.
Department of Justice describes domestic violence as “a pattern of abusive
behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain
power and control” over another[4]. Physical abuse in this setting
includes acts like punching, kicking, burning, or strangling, as well as
pulling hair, throwing objects, and other forms of assault[1]. While many think of women as
victims, men can also be victims of domestic violence—including severe
physical abuse—and the legal definitions and support systems are increasingly
recognizing male survivors.
Figure: Elizabeth is a survivor of extreme domestic violence (a gunshot
wound). She now advocates for others, highlighting that “domestic violence is
such a personal issue and it’s a secret”[5][6].
From a legal perspective, most modern
definitions of domestic violence encompass intimate partner violence, whether
by a spouse, dating partner, or cohabitant. International instruments like the
United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993)
explicitly address violence within households as a violation of human rights[7]. In essence, physical abuse and
domestic violence are intimately linked: physical abuse is one of the most
visible manifestations of domestic violence, though DV also includes
non-physical forms (e.g. emotional or economic abuse). This report will explore
these issues in depth, examining their history, causes, scope, impacts on both
women and men, and the solutions needed to prevent and address abuse.
Historical
Context and Evolution of Understanding
Historically, domestic violence was often regarded as a private family
matter, not a crime. The notion that “a man had the right to discipline his
wife” was codified in many cultures for centuries. For example, English common
law once allowed a husband to beat his wife with a stick no thicker than his
thumb (“rule of thumb”)[8].
Early legal records show that some very limited protections existed (e.g. 1871
cases in Massachusetts and Alabama where wife-beating was briefly outlawed),
but these were exceptions[9].
For much of history, societies lacked mechanisms to protect battered spouses or
to punish abusers. Cultural norms, religious beliefs, and gender inequalities
meant that many victims—especially women—had few rights or recourse.
The modern movement against domestic violence gained momentum in
the 1960s and 1970s, alongside the women’s liberation movement. Activists
raised awareness that many women suffered abuse at home, challenging the idea
that it was a private matter. The term “battered woman syndrome” emerged,
popularized by psychologist Lenore Walker in 1979[10].
Walker’s “cycle of violence” model described how abuse often follows a
repeating pattern (tension-building, acute violence, honeymoon)[10].
This model helped convince the public and policymakers that domestic violence
was systematic, not random or deserved by victims. It also underscored that
survivors often stayed with abusers not out of masochism but because of complex
psychological factors and hopes for change[11].
In the late 20th century, many countries began enacting laws and
policies against domestic violence. The 1970s–1980s saw the founding of the
first shelters and hotlines for battered women. For example, in 1971 in the
U.S., a fledgling shelter in St. Paul, Minnesota, started helping abused women
and children. By the 1980s, many U.S. states had anti-stalking laws and were
beginning to treat domestic violence seriously. Internationally, the 1990s were
a turning point: the United Nations adopted the Declaration on the
Elimination of Violence against Women in 1993[7],
recognizing gender-based violence as a human rights violation. The Council of
Europe’s Istanbul Convention (2011) was another landmark, legally
obligating member states to prevent and combat domestic violence, and to
provide victim support[12].
Even so, progress has been uneven. In some regions, domestic violence
was not criminalized at all until recently, or laws lacked enforcement. A 2018
review noted that dozens of countries—mainly in parts of Africa and the Middle
East—still had no explicit legislation against domestic violence[13].
Where laws do exist, cultural norms often delay reporting and challenge
enforcement. Over time, however, public understanding has shifted: many
now see DV as a critical social problem. Campaigns by governments and civil
society have raised awareness (e.g. UN’s “16 Days of Activism”, WHO
initiatives). Research, such as multi-country surveys by WHO, has documented
DV’s prevalence and impact, further legitimizing concerns. Today, domestic
violence is widely condemned, yet remains deeply entrenched; understanding its
history shows how social attitudes and laws have had to evolve, often slowly,
to protect victims.
Patterns, Causes,
and Risk Factors
Domestic violence follows certain patterns and arises from a complex
interplay of factors. One well-known pattern is the “cycle of violence”
model: relationships may go through tension-building phases (increasing stress
and minor abuse), acute episodes of violence, and brief periods of
reconciliation (“honeymoon” where the abuser apologizes)[10]. Over
time, these cycles often intensify, with violence becoming more frequent and
severe[10]. However,
it’s important to note that not all abuse follows this neat cycle: some
survivors report chronic tension with sporadic violence, or no identifiable
honeymoon phase[14].
Contemporary experts view DV as a dynamic pattern shaped by individual and
societal factors, rather than a rigid cycle.
Risk factors for becoming a victim or
perpetrator of domestic violence exist at multiple levels. The CDC categorizes
them as individual, relationship, community, and societal factors[15][16]. At the
individual level, factors include prior exposure to violence (victims or
perpetrators may have been abused as children), attitudes accepting violence,
substance abuse, mental health issues, and stress or low self-esteem[15][16]. For
instance, those who witnessed parental violence or were maltreated in childhood
are more likely to perpetrate or suffer IPV as adults[17].
Relationship factors involve conflict or instability: marital discord,
unhealthy conflict resolution, power imbalances, and economic stress (e.g.
unemployment, poverty) elevate risk[16][18]. One US
study notes that couples under financial strain or with controlling partners
see more IPV[16].
Community-level risks include crime, social isolation, and lack of community
sanctions against violence[19].
Societally, norms that condone aggression or rigid gender roles are
major drivers. Societies with high gender inequality and norms justifying
wife-beating tend to have higher DV rates[20]. A WHO
fact sheet explicitly notes: “Gender inequality and norms on the
acceptability of violence against women are a root cause of violence against
women.”[20].
Studies also identify triggering circumstances that can spark
abuse: these include loss of job, financial crises, substance use, and
stressful life events. For example, WHO has observed that stressful
situations like pandemics or economic upheaval can exacerbate domestic
violence[21]. The
#SafeHome campaign launched during COVID-19 highlighted that lockdowns and job
losses increased risk and made escape harder[22][21].
In summary, while anyone can be affected, the causes of domestic
violence tend to cluster in contexts of inequality, stress, and cultural
tolerance of aggression. Recognizing these risk factors helps in prevention:
reducing alcohol abuse, improving economic opportunities, challenging sexist
norms, and providing relationship support can all lower the incidence of
physical abuse in homes[16][21].
Global and Regional
Statistics
Domestic violence is pervasive worldwide. Women and girls are most
affected, though men are also victims. The World Health Organization
estimates that “almost one in three women worldwide have experienced
physical and/or sexual violence” by an intimate partner or other person in
their lifetime[23]. In fact,
globally about 30% of women who have been in a partnership have
experienced physical or sexual IPV in their lives[23]. These
prevalence rates vary by region: for example, around 33% in Africa and
Southeast Asia, versus 22% in Europe[24]. In the
Americas and Western Pacific roughly a quarter of partnered women report IPV[24].
Additionally, WHO reports that up to 38% of all murders of women worldwide
are committed by an intimate partner[25]. This
alarmingly high share of female homicides underlines the lethality of partner
violence in some cases[25].
Recent global estimates (WHO, 2022) further indicate that over 640
million women (26%) have been subjected to partner violence[26]. Data also
highlight that most survivors never seek help: about 55–95% of female
survivors of IPV never disclose or get assistance[27]. Among
specific countries, prevalence can be even higher: in rural sub-Saharan Africa
some surveys find over 40% of women ever-partnered have experienced IPV, while
in parts of Latin America figures exceed 30%[28]. Violence
can start young: for instance, one in four adolescent girls in the WHO
European region (ages 15–19) have faced partner violence[28], and
globally, half of all sexual assaults on women occur before age 25[29].
For men as victims, data are less comprehensive. In many
countries, official surveys have focused on women. However, research confirms
that men also experience domestic violence. U.S. surveys find that about
28–30% of men report lifetime IPV (physical, sexual, or stalking) by an
intimate partner[30][31]. One US
report states “over 1 in 3 women (35.6%) and 1 in 4 men (28.5%) … have
experienced [partner violence] in their lifetime”[30]. The CDC
similarly reported that roughly 26% of U.S. men have experienced contact sexual
violence, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner in their
lifetimes[31]. Globally,
comprehensive data on male IPV is sparse, but a 2020 review found studies
reporting anywhere from 3% to 20% of men experiencing physical domestic
violence[32]. Men’s abuse
often goes unreported due to stigma, but these figures indicate it is a
significant issue. For example, surveys in Australia and the UK suggest roughly
one in six to one in four men may be abused by a partner at some point
(depending on definitions used).
Regional differences exist. In high-income countries (US, Europe),
lifetime physical IPV prevalence for women is often reported in the 20–30%
range[30][24]. In areas
with fewer protections or patriarchal norms (some African, Middle Eastern, and
Asian countries), rates can be higher. For example, WHO reports ~33% lifetime
IPV in the Eastern Mediterranean region[24], and surveys
in some South Asian communities show even higher rates. However, comparisons
are tricky: surveys use different questions, and underreporting is common
(especially where stigma is high). It is clear, however, that domestic physical
violence is globally widespread, cutting across cultures and affecting millions
annually.
Gender-based Analysis
Domestic violence affects women and men differently due to societal
roles, physical differences, and help-seeking behavior. Women are
disproportionately victims of severe abuse. They are more likely to suffer
injuries, sexual violence, and homicide by a partner. For instance, in the U.S.
about 50–60% of female homicide victims are killed by a current or former
intimate partner, compared to about 5–10% of male homicide victims[33]. Women also
experience higher rates of sexual violence by partners. In clinical studies,
female IPV victims are often hospitalized for injuries, whereas male victims
more commonly report strains and contusions (reflecting differences in assault
types and reporting patterns).
Psychologically, women’s health is severely impacted. WHO has found
abused women are nearly twice as likely as non-abused women to suffer
depression and problem drinking[34]. They are also at
higher risk of chronic pain, eating disorders, and suicide attempts[34][35]. Children of abused
women similarly suffer higher rates of emotional problems and developmental
issues[36]. Men who experience
partner abuse also suffer, but studies suggest their injuries and outcomes may
differ. According to one review, abused men generally suffer “mostly minor
physical injuries” and elevated anxiety or substance use[32]. Some research
indicates men’s self-esteem may also drop, and they may feel emasculated by the
experience, though these outcomes are less studied.
Reporting and consequences differ by gender.
Women more often go to shelters and counseling, whereas men (when they seek
help) may prefer legal advice[37]. In an Illinois study
of domestic violence service use, female clients were far more likely to be
referred by friends or medical sources, while male clients tended to self-refer
or get referred by police[38]. Women in that study
also received more comprehensive social services (shelter, housing, mental
health), whereas male clients had more legal aid[39][40]. This reflects both
needs (women often leave home and need new housing) and system biases.
Culturally, male victims face greater stigma. As Sylvester Harris, a
male survivor in Texas, explained: “I feel like a lot of people don’t ask
for help just because they don’t want to look like they’re weak.”[41]. Men may fear not
being believed or being ridiculed. Indeed, the Family Place (a shelter service)
notes it is “significantly more difficult for male victims to leave their
abusers due to social expectations, fear of leaving children with their
abusers, or feeling the legal system has minimized their abuse claims”[42]. Men like Harris
describe intense shame despite having genuine injuries: “I felt a lot of
shame,” he said[43].
Despite differences, there are important similarities. Both women and
men survivors often report fear, anxiety, and trauma. Domestic violence can
leave anyone feeling unsafe at home. Both genders can be subject to controlling
behaviors (isolation, financial control, threats) – which are forms of
psychological abuse accompanying physical violence. Both also face barriers to
leaving: dependence on an abusive partner, concerns about children, or lack of
alternatives can trap any victim.
To summarize gender differences: while women face higher rates of
severe abuse and have widespread public support networks, men victims
also suffer significant violence but often in silence. Policymakers now
recognize that DV interventions must support all victims. For example, services
for men have begun to appear (shelters, hotlines) and laws are often
gender-neutral on paper. However, awareness campaigns and data collection still
largely focus on violence against women, which can leave male survivors feeling
invisible. An effective approach treats domestic violence as a shared issue
affecting families and communities, even as it acknowledges that gender
inequality remains a root driver[20].
Psychological
and Physical Effects on Victims
Physical injuries and health problems are
common consequences of domestic violence. Survivors can sustain bruises,
fractures, burns, or worse. WHO reports that 42% of women who experience IPV
report an injury from it[44].
Severe abuse can cause permanent disability. For instance, Elizabeth (pictured
above), a survivor and gun violence advocate, required extensive facial
reconstructive surgery after her ex-partner shot her and killed her child[5].
Beyond acute injuries, DV leads to long-term health issues: abused women have
higher rates of chronic conditions like heart disease, diabetes, and
gastrointestinal disorders[45][35].
Sexual violence can lead to unwanted pregnancies, STIs (including HIV), and
gynecological problems; WHO notes abused women are 1.5 times more likely to
acquire STIs than other women[46].
Pregnancy complicates matters: IPV during pregnancy increases risks of
miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight[47].
The psychological toll is profound for both genders. Common
effects include post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, and
substance abuse. Studies find that victims of IPV are nearly twice as likely to
have depression and problem drinking than non-victims[34].
Constant fear and stress can lead to insomnia, suicidal thoughts, and panic
disorders. Survivors often suffer from diminished self-esteem, guilt, and shame
(especially if the abuser blamed them). Elizabeth recounted feeling isolated
and in disbelief after her trauma, requiring months of therapy for even basic
actions like smiling[5].
Twahna, a young survivor, reported that abuse shattered her self-worth and even
led her to contemplate suicide[48].
These narratives illustrate that the mental scarring of abuse can last long
after physical wounds heal.
Children who witness or live amid domestic violence also suffer
effects. They may develop behavioral issues, emotional dysregulation, anxiety,
or aggression themselves. WHO notes children in violent homes can have
“behavioral and emotional disturbances” and are at higher risk of becoming
victims or perpetrators later[36].
Thus, the impact of physical abuse extends beyond direct victims to entire
families.
Importantly, both female and male survivors share many of these health
impacts. Male victims like Sylvester Harris described living “on edge,”
constantly fearful even after escaping abuse[49][41].
They too may have anxiety, depression, or substance problems. The NIJ notes
that “partner violence has severe impacts” including mental health issues for
victims of both sexes[32].
However, because men often have fewer support outlets and may be reluctant to
seek care, their psychological suffering may go underreported or untreated.
In sum, domestic violence inflicts a heavy physical and emotional
burden. It leads to injuries, disability, reproductive health issues, and
traumatic stress. Survivors may grapple with years of recovery. Recognizing
these effects is crucial: health and social services must be prepared to
support victims (and children) in comprehensive ways, addressing both body and
mind. This includes medical treatment, mental health counseling, and social
support – for all victims, regardless of gender[34][50].
Legal Frameworks
and Support Systems
Legal protections and support vary widely across the world. In many
countries, domestic violence is now a crime, but enforcement and
comprehensiveness differ. Key international frameworks include the UN’s
Declaration on VAW (1993) and the Council of Europe’s Istanbul Convention
(2011). The Istanbul Convention, for example, obliges signatory countries to
enact laws, policies, and support services to end violence against women and
domestic violence[12]. To
date, most European nations have ratified it and implemented specialized
domestic violence laws. This includes criminalizing marital rape and creating
victim support services.
In the Americas, some countries have dedicated DV statutes. For
instance, the U.S. has the federal Violence Against Women Act (1994,
reauthorized since) which funds shelters, hotlines, and legal aid. Almost all
U.S. states have specific domestic violence laws enabling restraining orders
and enhanced penalties for IPV crimes. Canada’s Family Violence Prevention and
Contact Act (2005) addresses family violence prevention and victim protection.
Latin American countries vary, but many (like Mexico, Brazil, Argentina) have
passed laws in the 21st century against gender-based violence; some have
integrated DV into their penal codes. However, countries like Haiti or parts of
Central America still struggle with gaps in enforcement.
In Asia, legal protection is uneven. India’s Protection of Women
from Domestic Violence Act (2005) provides civil remedies (e.g. shelter
orders), and in 2013 made marital rape an offense for separated wives.
Bangladesh criminalized child marriage and domestic violence, though
underreporting persists. Japan amended its laws in 2001 and 2013 to strengthen
DV definitions and protections. China criminalized domestic violence in 2015
(banning acts like beating, confinement), but criticisms remain about implementation.
Several Southeast Asian nations (Philippines, Cambodia) have progressive DV
laws, while others lag. In the Middle East, too often domestic violence is not
explicitly banned or marital rape is exempt. Human rights groups note that in
many MENA countries, laws are slow to protect women: “Marital rape is not
criminalized in many MENA countries”[51], and
few countries there have comprehensive DV legislation[52]. For
example, Equality Now reports that as of 2024, only 104 of 165 countries have
comprehensive domestic violence laws, leaving dozens with no specific statutes[53].
Support systems are equally varied. In
wealthier countries, networks of shelters, hotlines, and counseling exist for
victims. In the U.S., the National Domestic Violence Hotline (1-800-799-SAFE)
operates 24/7 in multiple languages[54],
referring victims to local services. Many countries have national helplines
(e.g. helplines run by NGOs or governments). Shelters provide safe housing; for
example, the Family Place in Texas even runs one of the few men’s shelters[55].
Courts may issue protection orders, and some jurisdictions have special
domestic violence courts or police units. Iceland, Australia, and others have
established nationwide DV helplines and funded counseling programs.
However, in low-resource or socially conservative countries, support
can be minimal. Where DV is stigmatized, victims may have no one to turn to.
Even when services exist, language barriers, poverty, and rural isolation limit
access. The WHO notes that “the majority (55% to 95%) of women survivors of
IPV … do not disclose or seek any type of help”[27].
Barriers include fear of retaliation, lack of trust in authorities, and
economic dependence (see below). Some governments are recognizing this and
expanding services. For example, many countries now have legal aid for DV
survivors, and some offer shelters specifically for battered women (though only
a few provide for male victims).
Legal remedies for abusers also vary. Some places enforce mandatory
arrest policies (police must act on DV calls), while others rely on
victim-initiated complaints. Several countries have started mandatory
counseling or anger-management programs for offenders, often court-ordered.
The Duluth Model, developed in the U.S., created a standardized
psychoeducational program for male abusers focusing on power and control
dynamics[56].
Research finds that Duluth interventions can be effective: a U.S. government
report states such programs reduced repeat violent offenses by offenders[57]. In
contrast, typical cognitive-behavioral programs showed no significant impact on
recidivism in that analysis[58]. This
suggests that batterer programs based on understanding gendered power
imbalances (like Duluth) may work better than generic therapy. Many countries
are now implementing or exploring these models as part of criminal justice
reform.
In summary, legal frameworks and support are key to addressing DV,
but they remain inconsistent globally. Developed nations generally have
advanced systems of laws, enforcement, and shelters. Developing regions often
have gaps: countries like South Sudan, Iraq, or Oman (for example) historically
had no DV laws[13]. Even
where laws exist, social acceptance and underfunded services hinder their
effect. Experts urge governments to enact comprehensive legislation (including
criminal penalties, restraining orders, and survivor assistance)[7][12], and
to invest in accessible support services. As one report urged: we must not
treat domestic violence as a mere private issue – it demands public justice
and protective systems for survivors of any gender.
Real-Life Case
Studies of Survivors
Personal stories illuminate how abuse affects real people. Male
survivors: Sylvester Harris (Texas) is one example. He entered a men’s
shelter after an ex-lover became physically violent[59]. Harris
emphasizes the psychological side: “Abusers have a way of stripping you of
your dignity, your self-esteem,” whether through mental, financial, or
physical abuse[60]. Harris
admits that as a man he hesitated to seek help: “I feel like a lot of people
don’t ask for help just because they don’t want to look like they’re weak,”[41]. He
finally stayed at The Family Place’s shelter (unique among male facilities),
receiving counseling, case management, and help finding housing and education[50]. Today
he has a job and a degree, crediting these services. His story shows both the trauma
of male domestic violence and the path to healing when supports are
available.
Another male survivor from New Zealand (called “Tim” in media)
described months of black eyes, strangulation, and constant fear by his male
partner[61][62]. He had
images of bruises as evidence. After breaking up, his ex destroyed his pet and
continued harassment. Tim reports always looking over his shoulder: “I was
constantly living on edge”[63]. He
notes how rare his experience is publicly: statistics often say only 10% of NZ
victims are male, but he feels many cases go unmeasured[64]. His
ongoing stress highlights that male victims often continue to suffer long after
escaping the relationship.
Female survivors: Elizabeth’s story (pictured
above) is harrowing. After leaving an abusive husband, she obtained a
restraining order. But when her ex broke in, he shot and horribly injured her –
killing their daughter[65].
Elizabeth awoke from a month-long coma with half her face reconstructed; she
can no longer feel her lips and struggles with daily tasks[5]. Trauma
is evident: she recalls a policeman dismissing it as “just a domestic violence
case” even as he lay dying[66]. Now
Elizabeth speaks out: she believes sharing her ordeal “gives [others]
courage to reach out and ask for help”[6]. Her
case underscores how lethal DV can be and the need for societal attention.
Another female activist, Twahna from the U.S., recounts falling in love
with a man who seemed perfect but soon began abusing her.[67]
Initially hit with a fist, she then suffered escalating mental, emotional, and
sexual abuse – so severe that she contemplated suicide[68]. Twahna
hid the abuse out of shame, as family “adored” her partner and she had been
isolated from them[69].
Finally, after he strangled her and threatened to kill her, Twahna fled
permanently[70]. She
found strength in faith and left quietly one morning, later channeling her
experience into founding The Butterfly Society, a grassroots DV awareness group[71][72].
Twahna’s journey shows the insidious nature of emotional abuse (no
visible wounds, but devastating effects on confidence) and the cultural
silencing that women often face.
These cases (and many more) illustrate common themes: abuse from
someone trusted, fear and isolation, often keeping it secret, and then a
painful journey to safety with the help of others. Both male and female
survivors highlight the importance of outside support – be it shelters,
friends, counselors, or legal aid – in escaping and recovering. They also
reveal failures: Tim’s difficulties getting taken seriously by authorities, or
the initial disbelief Elizabeth faced after her trauma. Together, survivor narratives
humanize statistics and remind us that real people’s lives are on the line.
Barriers to
Reporting and Seeking Help
Despite the prevalence of domestic violence, most victims never come
forward. The WHO estimates that “the majority (55% to 95%) of women
survivors… do not disclose or seek any type of help”[27].
Similar secrecy surrounds male survivors. Barriers include:
·
Fear of the abuser: Many victims fear retaliation or escalation if they report. Abusers
may threaten worse harm, or isolate victims from friends and family to prevent
them from seeking help.
·
Stigma and Shame: Cultural stigma keeps DV secret. Women may feel ashamed to admit
“failure” of marriage or be blamed by family. Men fear admitting victimhood, as
it may challenge masculine stereotypes[41].
Sylvester Harris voiced this stigma, saying men don’t seek help because they
“don’t want to look weak”[41].
·
Lack of Recognition: Some victims (especially early in abuse) do not label their experience
as “domestic violence,” blaming themselves instead. Twahna initially “told no
one” because she was embarrassed and ashamed[69].
Cultural or religious norms can make victims think abuse is normal or deserved.
·
Economic Dependence: Victims often lack financial means to leave. Women who depend on an
abusive partner for income or housing may stay to support children. Men may
similarly fear losing custody or be unable to afford separate living.
·
Children: Many stay because they think leaving might worsen outcomes for their
children. Ironically, children often suffer from witnessing abuse, but this
fear can trap both mothers and fathers.
·
Legal and Institutional
Barriers: In some places, law enforcement may dismiss
cases (as the police in Elizabeth’s case did[66]), or
courts may not enforce orders. Victims may distrust authorities, or have had
prior negative experiences.
·
Awareness and Access: Lack of knowledge about resources is common. Some victims don’t know
shelters or hotlines exist, or how to contact them safely. Language barriers
and disability can further impede access.
For men specifically, unique barriers exist. Social norms
discourage men from identifying as abuse victims. Harris noted that leaving was
hard because he worried others would not believe a man could be abused[43]. He
also cited research showing male victims fear the legal system minimises their
claims[43]. As
a result, men may endure violence longer before reaching out.
Given these hurdles, it is not surprising so many remain silent. The
paths out of abuse often require extreme courage and support. Survivors
advise that knowing others have overcome similar situations is crucial. As
Elizabeth said, talking about her ordeal is difficult, but if it “changes
one life, it matters”[6].
Public awareness efforts that destigmatize seeking help (for women and men) are
key. Outreach that assures confidentiality and safety, and active efforts by
police and health workers to identify abuse, can also lower barriers. We must
remind victims: “you are not alone”[6] and
help is available.
Culture,
Stigma, and Socioeconomic Factors
The role of culture and socioeconomic context in domestic violence is
profound. Cultural norms can condone or discourage abuse. In some
societies, patriarchal views grant men authority to “discipline” wives, making
violence socially acceptable. Practices like honor culture or deference
to elders can pressure victims into silence. For example, the WorldAtlas
piece noted that in many countries, community leaders (village elders,
religious figures) often handle DV cases informally, and governments face
resistance in passing formal laws[73].
In such settings, victims may be urged to reconcile rather than seek justice.
Discriminatory laws (e.g. denying women equal citizenship or requiring male
guardians) reinforce women’s dependence, as Equality Now describes in MENA
contexts[51][74].
Where “family honor” is paramount, victims fear social ostracism or worse if
they speak up.
Stigma is universal. Many victims believe “domestic violence is such
a personal issue and it’s a secret”[6].
Twahna explicitly said she was too ashamed to tell even her own family[69].
Shame can be paralyzing: victims might internalize blame or fear judgment if
they disclose abuse. Male victims face an added stigma: being perceived as weak
or emasculated. Sylvester’s story highlights how even when services exist
(“They can just call our hotline… it’s accessible”), social factors still
discourage men[75].
Socioeconomic factors both contribute to and
exacerbate DV. Poverty, unemployment, and low education are correlated with
higher violence rates. Financial stress can trigger conflicts, as CDC risk
factors note[16].
Economic dependence traps victims: without income or housing, leaving becomes
near impossible. Conversely, financial empowerment of women tends to reduce
vulnerability (unless it threatens an abuser’s control, which can paradoxically
provoke violence). Globally, women with fewer rights and resources – for
example in rural or underdeveloped regions – are especially at risk.
On the other hand, DV is not confined to the poor. It cuts across
classes, though wealthier survivors may have more options (access to legal aid,
relocation resources). Overall, research underscores that inequality –
not just between genders but in wealth and power – feeds domestic violence.
Societies that enable economic independence, gender equality, and challenge
harmful traditions generally see lower rates. As WHO emphasizes, “gender
norms that condone violence” and “low levels of women’s access to paid
employment” are societal risk factors for IPV[17].
Combatting the cultural and socioeconomic roots of domestic violence
requires broad social change. Education campaigns must address norms: telling
men that women are not property, and that abuse is unacceptable, can
shift attitudes over time. Economic policies that reduce poverty and ensure
social safety nets help too. NGOs have found success by working with
communities: for instance, bringing discussions into schools, churches, and
men’s groups to question beliefs about gender and strength. Twahna’s Butterfly
Society actively takes the message into barbershops, schools, and churches,
saying “one person can’t do this alone; it takes many hands and many voices”[72].
Changing culture is slow, but essential: without challenging stigma and
inequality, legal reforms alone won’t eliminate domestic abuse.
Solutions and
Prevention Strategies
Addressing domestic violence demands multi-faceted solutions at public,
legal, and community levels. Below are key strategies:
Public Education
and Awareness Campaigns
Raising
public awareness is a cornerstone of prevention. Education can change
attitudes, inform victims of their rights, and encourage bystander
intervention. Governments and NGOs often run media campaigns. For
example, sports organizations have partnered with international bodies: FIFA
and WHO launched a global “#SafeHome” campaign using football ambassadors to
highlight DV during the COVID lockdowns[76].
Symbolic campaigns like the UN’s “16 Days of Activism against Gender-Based
Violence” (every Nov-Dec) mobilize global attention annually. These initiatives
share information via social media, TV ads, posters, and community events.
School
programs are effective for younger audiences: teaching adolescents about
healthy relationships and consent helps prevent the next generation from
repeating patterns. Empowerment programs like The Butterfly Society (founded by
Twahna) use grassroots outreach – going to barbershops, schools, and churches –
to “educate, empower and engage” communities[72].
Public figures and survivor testimonials also resonate. Hearing stories like
Elizabeth’s or Harris’s, survivors of both genders, can break the silence and
let others know it’s possible to escape abuse.
Importantly,
campaigns should target both men and women. Engaging men as allies – for
instance, urging fathers and husbands to model non-violent behavior – is
crucial. Programs like HeForShe encourage men’s leadership against gender-based
violence. Overall, education must challenge the myths (e.g. “it’s a
private matter” or “victims provoke abuse”) and promote a culture where
everyone feels responsible for preventing DV.
Policy Recommendations
Strong policies set
the framework for action. Governments should: - Enact and enforce
comprehensive DV laws. Laws must criminalize all forms of domestic violence
(including marital rape), require arrest or intervention, and protect victims
with restraining orders. Countries without such laws (e.g. some Pacific
islands, certain Middle Eastern states) urgently need them. - Ratify
international treaties. Ratification of conventions like the Istanbul
Convention or CEDAW signals commitment and often comes with technical support
to implement reforms. - Fund support services. Shelters, hotlines,
counseling, and legal aid should be publicly funded. Policies should ensure affordable
access to these, especially in rural or underserved areas. For example,
allocating budget to build state-wide networks of shelters and 24/7 crisis
centers can save lives. - Data collection and monitoring. Policies
should mandate systematic data gathering on DV (including male victims) to
inform interventions. Regular surveys and crime statistics are needed. - Address
socioeconomic factors. Policies that reduce poverty, support housing and
education for single parents, and enforce equal pay contribute to lowering DV
risk by reducing stressors and dependence.
Legislative bodies
should work with civil society to continually update policies based on best
practices. For example, U.S. policymakers often seek survivor input when
reauthorizing laws like VAWA. In sum, robust policies must create an
environment where violence is not tolerated and survivors can safely report
abuse.
Legal and Criminal
Justice Reforms
The
justice system plays a key role in deterrence and victim protection. Reforms
include: - Specialized domestic violence courts or units. These
courts/training help judges and police understand DV dynamics and enforce
protective orders effectively. - Mandatory arrest / pro-arrest policies.
In many regions, laws require police to arrest when called to a DV incident
(eliminating the decision to “mediate” cases). This can protect victims, though
it must be applied carefully (e.g. evaluating risk of dual arrest). - Victim
protections in court. Ensuring confidentiality, providing victims with
legal support or advocate in court, and using risk assessment tools to keep
high-danger perpetrators in custody can reduce harm. - Perpetrator
rehabilitation mandates. Courts can order abusers to attend intervention
programs (like the Duluth-based counseling) as part of sentencing or probation.
NIJ research found Duluth programs effective at reducing reoffending[57], so
integrating evidence-based programs should be encouraged. - Training for law
enforcement and judges. Sensitization workshops can correct misconceptions
(e.g. that DV victims “must have done something to deserve it”). Understanding
that victims often recant due to fear, or that psychological abuse is real, is
crucial.
Criminal
justice reforms must focus on the safety of victims, not just the punishment of
abusers. Speedy processing of protection orders, strict enforcement of warrants
for violations, and victim-centered policing improve outcomes.
Intervention and
Rehabilitation Programs
Interventions
are needed for both victims and abusers: - For victims: Offer
comprehensive services like counseling (individual and group therapy), health
care, and support groups. Crisis centers and shelters provide immediate safety.
Economic support (job training, childcare) helps survivors rebuild
independence. Harris’s story shows how a shelter’s case management, housing
assistance, and educational support enabled his recovery[50]. -
For children: Provide counseling for children who witnessed DV to
address trauma and prevent the cycle of abuse. - For perpetrators: As
noted, effective batterer intervention programs should be available. While
legal systems mandate these for convicted offenders, community programs could
also engage abusers earlier (e.g. court diversion programs). Some countries
have explored mandatory “perpetrator treatment” as an alternative to
incarceration, focusing on changing attitudes and teaching non-violent conflict
resolution. - Mental health integration: Since many victims (and
abusers) suffer from mental health issues or substance abuse, programs should
include psychiatric evaluation and treatment when needed. Treating alcoholism
or depression can reduce violent episodes.
It’s
vital that intervention not blame victims or let offenders evade
responsibility. Programs like Duluth’s emphasize the abuser’s accountability
and aim to reshape gender power beliefs[56].
Rehabilitation also involves community reintegration support to prevent
recidivism.
Community-Based
Support and Prevention
Neighborhoods
and communities can act as first lines of defense. Strategies include: - Grassroots
activism: Community groups (like The Butterfly Society in the U.S. or
MenEngage networks worldwide) hold workshops, group discussions, and outreach
to educate locals. Engaging local leaders (religious, tribal, or civic) to
speak out against DV can shift norms. - Bystander training: Programs
teach community members to safely intervene or report if they see signs of
abuse (e.g. Children’s “No More” campaign). Empowering neighbors, teachers, and
healthcare workers to recognize and act can break isolation. - Peer support
networks: Survivors organizing together form support circles where people
share experiences and resources. Peer mentors who have escaped abuse can guide
new survivors to safety. - School and youth programs: Integrating
relationship education in schools helps prevent abuse early. For example, the
SASA! program in Uganda used local activists to change norms and saw reductions
in violence (men in SASA communities reported less physical IPV)[77]. - Shelter
networks: Communities should ensure that emergency shelters are known,
accessible, and welcoming to all genders and sexual orientations. Some
innovative models (like transitional housing with on-site services) greatly
help survivors restart their lives.
Community
strategies recognize that DV is not just a personal problem but a societal one.
When communities take a stand, victims feel supported and abusers see that
violence will not be tolerated. As one survivor says, “You absolutely can be
abused as a man in a domestic violence situation”[75] –
and equally, survivors everywhere must believe “you’re not in it by
yourself”[6].
Collective action is essential to prevention.
Conclusion
Physical
abuse and domestic violence are grave issues affecting millions of women and
men worldwide. They inflict deep physical and psychological wounds, undermining
health, dignity, and community safety. Throughout history, societies have often
turned a blind eye to domestic violence, but awareness has been growing:
international declarations, laws like the Istanbul Convention, and grassroots
activism now affirm that domestic violence is intolerable. Still, our research
shows that domestic violence remains pervasive; its causes are rooted in gender
inequality, stress, and cultural norms. Both women and men suffer, though
patterns differ: women face higher rates of severe abuse and sexual violence,
while men struggle against stigma and underreporting.
The
effects on victims are profound. Health outcomes include injuries, chronic
conditions, mental illness, and even death[45][34]. Children in violent homes are
also at risk. Yet, despite the magnitude of the problem, most victims do not
seek help[27] due to fear, shame, and
barriers. To change this, we need robust, multi-layered solutions. As
highlighted, we advocate for: - Public education and awareness to
challenge myths and inform all genders. - Strong policies and laws
(criminalizing violence, funding services) to protect victims. - Criminal
justice reforms to hold offenders accountable and keep victims safe. - Rehabilitation
programs for both victims (counseling, shelter) and perpetrators
(intervention programs). - Community prevention efforts that mobilize
bystanders and change social norms.
These
strategies should be tailored to local cultures but guided by the principles
that violence has no place in the home[78]. We have seen the power of
voices like Elizabeth’s and Twahna’s in inspiring change[5][6]. Now, as a global community, we
must raise more voices — from lawmakers, educators, men’s groups, and survivors
themselves — to ensure no one endures domestic violence in silence. Only
through comprehensive advocacy, education, and systemic reform can we hope to
prevent future abuse and support every survivor toward a life of safety and
dignity.
Sources: This report draws on a range of recent studies, statistics, and expert
analyses. Key references include World Health Organization fact sheets[23][34], U.S. Centers for Disease
Control (CDC) data[45][30], government reports[1][15], and survivor accounts[41][5], among others, as cited above.
Each source provides data or insight into the scope, causes, and solutions for
domestic violence affecting women and men.
[1] [4] [54]
Office on Violence Against Women (OVW) | Domestic Violence
https://www.justice.gov/ovw/domestic-violence
[2] Violence Info – Intimate partner
violence
http://apps.who.int/violence-info/intimate-partner-violence/
[3] [31] [33] [45] About Intimate Partner Violence
| Intimate Partner Violence Prevention | CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/intimate-partner-violence/about/index.html
[5] [6] [48] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] These women survived domestic
violence. Now they're taking a stand to help others - Amnesty International
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/10/gun-violence-report/
[7] Declaration on the Elimination
of Violence against Women | United Nations in Islamic Republic of Iran
https://iran.un.org/en/102382-declaration-elimination-violence-against-women
[8] [9] History of Intimate Partner
Violence Reform | Freedom and Citizenship
https://freedomandcitizenship.columbia.edu/ipv-history
[10] [11] [14] [56] The Cycle of Abuse and its use
to understand Domestic Violence
https://promising.futureswithoutviolence.org/the-cycle-of-domestic-violence/
[12] Home - Istanbul Convention
Action against violence against women and domestic violence
https://www.coe.int/en/web/istanbul-convention
[13] [73] Countries Without Laws Against
Domestic Violence - WorldAtlas
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/nations-without-domestic-violence-regulation.html
[15] [16] [19] Risk and Protective Factors |
Intimate Partner Violence Prevention | CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/intimate-partner-violence/risk-factors/index.html
[17] [18] [20] [24] [34] [35] [36] [44] [46] [47]
Violence against women
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women
[21] [22] [23] [25] [27] [28] [29] [76] [78]
FIFA, European Commission and World Health Organization launch #SafeHome
campaign to support those at risk from domestic violence
[26] Facts and figures: Ending
violence against women - UN Women
[30] Domestic Violence Statistics -
The Hotline
https://www.thehotline.org/stakeholders/domestic-violence-statistics/
[32] Domestic Violence Against
Men-Prevalence and Risk Factors - PubMed
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33087241/
[37] [38] [39] [40] ICJIA | Illinois Criminal
Justice Information Authority
[41] [42] [43] [50] [55] [59] [60] [75] A story rarely told: Man opens
up about surviving domestic violence
[49] [61] [62] [63] [64] Male domestic violence survivor
on battle to get help and harassment he faces two years on - NZ Herald
[51] [52] [74] Women & girls' rights in
the Middle East & North Africa - Equality Now
[53] Facts and figures: Ending
violence against women
[57] [58] Archived | Batterer
Intervention Programs Have Mixed Results | National Institute of Justice
https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/batterer-intervention-programs-have-mixed-results
[77]
The impact of SASA!, a community mobilization intervention, on reported
HIV-related risk behaviours and relationship dynamics in Kampala, Uganda - PMC
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